Bart C. O'Brien

1. THE XERISCAPE CONCEPT
2. HISTORY
3. CURRENT TRENDS
4. THE SEARCH FOR NEW NATIVE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
5. TESTING, EVALUATION, AND MARKETING
6. CONSERVATION OF GENETIC RESOURCES
7. CONCLUSION
8. REFERENCES

THE XERISCAPE CONCEPT

The word xeriscape was coined in 1981, to capture the idea of water conserving landscapes but conceptually xeriscape involves much more. There are seven essential components of xeriscaping: appropriate planning and design; appropriate/minimal turf areas; appropriate soil preparation and analysis; appropriate plant selection; appropriate watering methods; appropriate use of mulches; and appropriate landscape maintenance. In essence, the underlying concept behind xeriscape is the doctrine of regionally appropriate horticulture.

In practice, however, xeriscape often has been reduced to the landscaping idea of maximizing the efficient use of water in gardens and landscapes by creating areas which group plants by their water requirements. Typically this has been interpreted as growing the plants with the greatest water need nearest the home and transitioning to very low to no irrigation at the zone furthest from the home. This zoning of the landscape according to water use may also have additional benefits pertaining to fire breaks, wildlife value, and in enhancing the diversity of plants that may be grown in the garden.

HISTORY

Due to the dominance of our primarily temperate European horticultural heritage, there has always been a predisposition toward water-loving exotic plants in our landscapes and gardens. The westward expansion and settling of the country brought these same traditions and plants into increasingly dry and warmer regions that are prone to long periods of drought. As long as water was cheap and abundant there wasn't a problem and a more or less standard set of coast-to-coast plants thrived in spacious green havens. Over much of the country, water is the limiting resource governing the use of ornamental plants in gardens. The huge increase in population in the U.S. Southwest has in many areas outstripped local water supplies. In some areas of the country, water for landscape or garden use is seasonally rationed or restricted. The cost of water, even during years of abundant rainfall, is always increasing. Water quality issues, including salinity and contamination by nitrates and bacteria, lead to increased costs due to necessary water treatment programs. As time passed, our use of gardens and landscapes changed from seasonal retreats and visual frames for our homes and buildings to heavily used outside multi-purpose spaces. These changes resulted in the establishment of the xeriscape concept.

CURRENT TRENDS

There are a number of trends in home landscapes and gardens which will influence the ornamental plant industry. Those which I consider to be among the most important are: (1) the decrease in the amount of time, money and expertise that most households have to invest in properly planting and maintaining gardens; (2) the shrinking in average size of new gardens; (3) the increasing use of gardens as living spaces and outdoor rooms; (4) the increasing cost of water, labor, fertilizers, and chemicals; and (5) the restriction or limiting of water use for garden and landscape purposes.

Although there is always a market for colorful annuals, biennials, and short-lived perennials, these are generally more difficult groups to depend upon in landscapes and gardens. Longer lived perennials, subshrubs, shrubs and trees are the backbone of landscapes and gardens and will constitute the primary nursery market.

Under current conditions, I am convinced that a greater diversity of plants which flourish under existing climatic conditions across the country are needed. These changes should be viewed as potential opportunities and require the search for, and development of, perennials, subshrubs, shrubs and trees in the following categories: dwarf or compact forms of existing plants; new plants of small stature; plants that are all season performers; low maintenance plants; long, or continuous, seasons of color, be it flowers, foliage, fruits, stems or bark; good-looking, water-thrifty plants; and plants that attract wildlife.

Native plants which fall into any or all of these categories will be particularly desirable as they have the additional benefit of fitting into the local and regional conditions both visually and ecologically. This opportunity creates a new, relatively unexploited regional niche market for the nursery industry, and should eventually lead to a more striking regionalism in the American landscape vernacular.

THE SEARCH FOR NEW NATIVE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

There are a number of people and institutions throughout the country looking at our native plants as a direct or secondary source of new introductions for the nursery industry, but anyone can become involved in this process. The methods employed to create new native ornamentals can be as informal as selection from the wild or as sophisticated as plant breeding including even genetic engineering.

A good place to begin the investigation of new native plants for drier portions of our landscapes is to look at the large plant families and genera in the region you are serving, and to concentrate the search on those plants inhabiting drier habitats. In California and the southwest, these would likely include some of the following: Agavaceae (Agave, Nolina, Yucca), Alliaceae (Allium), Amaryllidaceae (Brodiaea, Dichelostemma, Triteleia), Asclepidaceae (Asclepias), Asteraceae (Artemisia, Erigeron, Senecio, Haplopappus--Ericameria, Hazardia, Isocoma), Cactaceae (Opuntia), Crassulaceae (Dudleya, Sedum), Cyperaceae (Carex), Ericaceae (Arctostaphylos), Fabaceae (Astragalus, Lupinus), Fagaceae (Quercus), Grossulariaceae (Ribes), Iridaceae (Iris, Sisyrinchium), Hydrophyllaceae (Phacelia), Lamiaceae (Lepechinia, Monardella, Salvia), Liliaceae (Calochortus, Lilium), Malvaceae (Malacothamnus, Sidalcea, Sphaeralcea), Poaceae (Festuca), Polygonaceae (Eriogonum), Ranunculaceae (Aquilegia, Delphinium, Ranunculus), Rhamnaceae (Ceanothus, Rhamnus), Rosaceae (Adenostoma, Cercocarpus, Heteromeles, Holodiscus, Prunus, Purshia, Rosa, Spiraea), Saxifragaceae (Heuchera), and Scrophulariaceae (Penstemon).

The majority of these large genera and families have yet to be tested or evaluated for horticultural purposes in a serious systematic fashion including most perennial members of Phacelia, Monardella, Eriogonum, and Astragalus. A number of these large genera have well known propagation problems (such as commercially viable method for asexual propagation of Quercus and Calochortus) or are known to be especially difficult to grow and/or maintain under nursery conditions (like Calochortus and many native Delphinium and Lupinus species).

The selection of an individual plant for possible introduction is generally accomplished by finding a desirable feature or set of features that are deemed desirable. These individuals can be found in the wild or in the garden and often represent extremes of the natural variation: compact growth habit, different foliage, albinos, and unusual color forms. Additional factors such as mutations including witch's brooms, variegated foliage, and natural hybrids also contribute to the possible pool of plants to choose from. Traditionally these matters of chance have been the most frequently reported sources of many excellent cultivars: Heterotheca (Chrysopsis) villosa 'San Bruno Mountain', a sterile, free-flowering dwarf selection; Artemisia pycnocephala 'David's Choice', a heat tolerant compact selection; Erigeron 'W.R.', a compact, free-flowering, heat and cold tolerant chance wild hybrid between Erigeron glaucus and an unknown species; and Acer macrophylla 'Seattle Sentinel', a fastigiate selection.

Another especially rich area for horticultural selection can be found in nearly all taxonomically confusing groups at either the generic [example: Arctostaphylos and Zauschneria (Epilobium)] or specific [example: Mimulus aurantiacus or Mahonia (Berberis) aquifolium] level. Taxonomic chaos is often indicative of the extreme plasticity found naturally in the group and by inference the potential horticultural availability of variation to select from. Similarly, there are a number of extremely variable species that are nearly as ripe for selection as the taxonomically complicated groups listed above. These species include Rhamnus californica, Erigeron glaucus, Ceanothus maritimus, Quercus chrysolepis, and Juniperus communis.

Peripheral populations of a desirable plant are another source of native plants for landscapes and gardens. Plants from these populations may be more tolerant of heat or cold, higher or lower elevations, drought or wetness, may exhibit resistance to diseases or pests, or may be adaptable to a different soil type or condition. An excellent example of this phenomena is Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 'Point Reyes', a selection from the fog-bound headlands of the Point Reyes peninsula in Marin County that is extremely tolerant of heat and drought in comparison to typical members of the species. The small relictual San Bernardino Mountains population of Populus tremuloides is remarkably well adapted to growing conditions at low elevations in southern California. When plants from these peripheral populations are not themselves horticulturally desirable, they may carry genes which may be useful in a breeding program.

Another particularly rich source of new plants to investigate are the genera that have been dependably used in landscapes and gardens before, and look for a different species with desirable characteristics. Cultivars of the "new" species can be selected directly or the "new" species may be used to create hybrids with the "established" species. The named Heuchera maxima x Heuchera sanguinea hybrids: 'Genevieve', 'Opal', 'Santa Ana Cardinal', 'Susanna', and 'Wendy', created by Dr. Lee W. Lenz are excellent examples of this approach.

Breeding programs involving controlled crosses and hybridization between species are relatively rarely encountered in the native flora. There are, however, a few exemplary programs which have yielded many fine plants: the pacific coast hybrid irises, the Mimulus hybrids (of the section Diplacus), the Lewisia cotyledon complex, and Lilium hybrids.

All new cultivars should be named, described, published and registered with the proper registration authority. A list of all currently accepted registration authorities for ornamental plants is available from the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta (AABGA).

TESTING, EVALUATION, AND MARKETING

All too frequently, a promising native plant species or cultivar does not live up to its potential. Almost without exception, these plants are victims of poor testing and evaluation.

Establishing a set of desirable traits and characteristics of plants which the public actively wants or desires is a critical first step in the development of a new plant introduction strategy. Consulting with focus groups from the nursery industry, the gardening public, native plant enthusiasts, realtors, horticultural groups and others should provide the researcher with plenty of input on a variety of desirable plant traits. As progress is made in the selection process, the new plants should be planted out in a number of test sites. Test plantings should then be evaluated by a number of outside reviewers. Plants surviving through the testing and evaluation process are then ready to be introduced and marketed to potential user groups. The most recent successful example of a western native plant to go through such a thorough program is Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 'Vancouver Jade', an introduction out of the University of British Columbia's well known plant introduction program.

CONSERVATION OF GENETIC RESOURCES

Everyone involved with the selection, use and promotion of new native plant species and cultivars and/or any of their close relatives must be fully aware of the potential negative consequences of their use in gardens and landscapes. Most of these concerns center around the issue of conservation of genetic resources and the genetic pollution of native plant populations in the wild. Three examples from the California flora will serve to illuminate this issue.

Nevin's Barberry [Mahonia (Berberis) nevinii], an extremely rare plant in nature, is found in widely distributed and ecologically varied small populations in southern California. It is, however, a relatively commonly seen landscape plant throughout the state. A molecular level study of these plants showed that there is little to no variation present in the gene pool. Therefore, the seed source of plants to be planted in the vicinity of the remaining individuals in the wild is not of concern--there will be no adverse consequences to the gene pool.

The California dandelion (Taraxacum californicum) from the wet meadows in the San Bernardino Mountains is a rare plant whose continued existence is threatened by ongoing hybridization with the common European dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), a weedy pest plant that is common throughout the range of the rare species.

The Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) is known from five geographically isolated populations (three are from central coastal California and two are on islands off Baja California). This tree is a significant forest tree in the southern hemisphere, particularly in New Zealand. Material from all five populations has been grown together on a massive scale in New Zealand, such that the primary seed source of Monterey pine (even in California) is from New Zealand. The issue of primary concern here is that the "mongrel" Monterey pines of New Zealand mixed origin will genetically pollute the "pure" native stands of these trees, such that the unique genetic character of the California populations will be lost due to homogenization of the gene pool over time (the Baja California populations are not threatened in this way at this time).

CONCLUSION

The development of new native plant crops for use in xeriscape landscapes and gardens is still wide open with innumerable opportunities waiting for the interested or inspired investigator. As more work is done to select and develop the native flora for use in gardens, the more likely it will be that these deserving plants will be used and appreciated by the general public. When the public is aware and appreciative of the beauty and utility of native plants they will be much more open to the conservation and preservation of this essential component of our natural heritage. The single most important caveat regarding the horticultural use of these native plants is that their use should not be allowed to adversely impact native plant genetic resources.

REFERENCES

• Beck, Beatrice M. 1990. Drought tolerant planting bibliography. Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, Claremont, CA.
• Ellefson, Connie L., Thomas L. Stephens, and Douglas Welsh. 1992. Xeriscape gardening: Water conservation for the American landscape. Macmillan, New York.
• Libby, William J. 1990. Genetic conservation of Monterey [pine] and coast redwood. Fremontia. 18(2):15-21.
• Ottesen, Carole. 1995. Native plant primer: Trees, shrubs, and wildflowers for natural gardens. Harmony Books, New York.
• Perry, Robert C. 1992. Landscape plants for western regions: An illustrated guide to plants for water conservation. Land Design Publishing, Claremont, CA.
• Skinner, Mark W. and Bruce M. Pavlik (eds.). 1994. California Native Plant Society's inventory of rare and endangered vascular plants of California. 5th ed. California Native Plant Society, Sacramento.
• Wasowski, Sally, with Andy Wasowski. 1995. Native gardens for dry climates. Clarkson Potter / Publ., New York.

from: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-536.html

Winter temperatures in Florida are frequently low enough to cause cold injury to tropical, subtropical, and occasionally temperate plants not adapted to Florida climatic conditions. Tropical plants and summer annuals do not adapt or harden to withstand temperatures below freezing and many are injured by temperatures below 50°F (10°C). Subtropical plants can harden or acclimate (become accustomed to a new climate) to withstand freezing temperatures and properly conditioned temperate plants can withstand temperatures substantially below freezing. Freezing conditions occur annually in north and central Florida, while below freezing temperatures are rare for south Florida. Freeze probabilities for various locations in Florida are published in IFAS Bulletin 777, Freeze Probabilities in Florida.

Freezes can be characterized as radiational or advective. Radiational freezes or frosts occur on calm, clear nights when heat radiates from the surfaces of objects into the environment. These surfaces can become colder than the air above them due to this rapid loss of heat or long wave radiation. When the air is moist, a radiant freeze results in deposits of ice or frost on surfaces. Dry radiational freezes leave no ice deposits but can cause freeze damage. Plant damage from a radiational freeze can be minimized by reducing radiant heat loss from plant and soil surfaces.

Advective freezes occur when cold air masses move from northern regions causing a sudden drop in temperature. Windy conditions are normal during advective freezes. Although radiant heat loss occurs during an advective freeze, the conditions are quite different from a radiational freeze. Plant protection during advective freezes is more difficult.

The ability of plants to withstand freezing temperatures is affected by temperature fluctuations and day lengths prior to a freeze. A gradual decrease in temperature over a period of time increases the ability of plants or plant parts to withstand cold temperatures. A sudden decrease in temperature in late fall or early winter usually results in more damage than the same low temperature in January of February. Short durations of warmer temperatures in midwinter can deacclimate some plants resulting in bud break or flowering. Deacclimated plants are more prone to freeze injury. Preconditioning of tropical plants to withstand chilling temperatures has not been well documented.

Cold injury can occur to the entire plant or to plant parts such as fruits, flowers, buds, leaves, trunks, stems or roots. Many plant parts can adapt to tolerate cold, but fruits and roots have little ability to acclimate or develop cold tolerance. Cold injury to roots of plants in exposed containers is a common occurrence and usually is not evident until the plant is stressed by higher temperatures. Leaf and stem tissue will not survive ice formation inside the cells (result of rapid freeze) but many plants can adapt to tolerate ice formation between cells.

One type of winter injury is plant desiccation or drying out. This is characterized by marginal or leaf tip burn in mild cases and totally brown leaves in severe cases. Desiccation occurs when dry winds and solar radiation result in the loss of more water from the leaves than can be absorbed and/or transported by a cold or frozen root system. Root systems in the landscape are seldom frozen in Florida, but potting media in small containers in north Florida can be frozen for several consecutive hours.

WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE FREEZE

Homeowners can take steps to help acclimate plants to cold temperatures and to protect plants from temperature extremes. These steps range from selection of a proper planting site to alteration of cultural practices.

Planting Site Selection

The microclimate of a location is determined by factors such as elevation, landform, surface reflectivity, soil properties, degree of canopy cover, proximity of structures or plants, and the general solar heat exchange model. Temperature fluctuation can differ from one location to another, even within a residential landscape. Thus, existing microclimates and/or possible modifications of microclimates should be considered when choosing the planting site for cold sensitive plants.

Tender plants should be planted in a site with good air drainage, and not in a low area where cold air settles. Arranging plantings, fences, or other barriers to protect tender plants from cold winds improves cold protection, especially from advective freezes. Poorly drained soils result in weak, shallow roots which are susceptible to cold injury.

Proper Plant Nutrition

Plants grown with optimal levels and balance of nutrients will tolerate cold temperatures better and recover from injury faster than plants grown with suboptimal or imbalanced nutrition. Late fall fertilization of nutrient deficient plants or fertilization before unseasonably warm periods can result in a late flush of growth which is more susceptible to cold injury. Plants in Florida landscapes should be fertilized four times per year. Landscape plants in north and north central Florida should be fertilized in March, June, September, and December. Plants in south and south central Florida should be fertilized in February, May, August, and November. One to 1½ pounds (454 to 681 grams) of 6-6-6 or 8-8-8, or ½ pound (227 grams) of 12-4-8 or 16-4-8 should be applied per 100 square feet (9 square meters) of planting area for the first three applications per year. A decrease in the amount of fertilizer applied in the fall is necessary because plant nutrient consumption declines during the colder season. Plants grown in colder portions of the state require one-third to one-half the standard fertilization rate in the fall, and two-thirds the standard rate should be applied in the warmer sections of Florida.

Shading

Tree canopy covers can reduce cold injury caused by radiational freezes. Plants in shaded locations usually go dormant earlier in the fall and remain dormant later in the spring. Tree canopies elevate minimum night temperature under them by reducing radiant heat loss from the ground to the atmosphere. Shading from early morning sun may decrease bark splitting of some woody plants. Plants that thrive in light shade usually display less winter desiccation than plants in full sun. But plants requiring sunlight that are grown in shade will be unhealthy, sparsely foliated, and less tolerant of cold temperatures.

Windbreaks

Fences, buildings, and temporary coverings, as well as adjacent plantings, can protect plants from cold winds. Windbreaks are especially helpful in reducing the effects of short-lived advective freezes and their accompanying winds. Injury due to radiational freezes is influenced little by windbreaks. The height, density, and location of a windbreak will affect the degree of wind speed reduction at a given site.

Water Relations

Watering landscape plants before a freeze can help protect plants. A well watered soil will absorb more solar radiation than dry soil and will reradiate heat during the night. This practice elevated minimum night temperatures in the canopy of citrus trees by as much as 2°F (1°C). However, prolonged saturated soil conditions damage the root systems of most plants.

Other Cultural Practices

Avoid late summer or early fall pruning which can alter the plant hormonal balance resulting in lateral vegetative budbreak and a flush of growth. This new growth is more susceptible to cold injury.

Healthy plants are more resistant to cold than plants weakened by disease, insect damage, or nematode damage. Routine inspection for pests and implementation of necessary control measures are essential. Contact your County Extension Office for information on pest identification and recommended controls.

Methods of Protection

Plants in containers can be moved into protective structures where heat can be supplied and/or trapped. Containers that must be left outdoors should be protected by mulches and pushed together before a freeze to reduce heat loss from container sidewalls. Leaves of large canopy plants may be damaged if crowded together for extended periods.

Heat radiating from soil surfaces warms the air above the soil or is carried away by air currents. Radiant heat from the soil protects low growing plants on calm cold nights, while tall, open plants receive little benefit. Radiant heat loss is reduced by mulches placed around plants to protect the roots. For perennials, the root system is all that needs to be protected since the plants die back to the ground annually.

Coverings protect more from frost than from extreme cold. Covers that extend to the ground and are not in contact with plant foliage can lessen cold injury by reducing radiant heat loss from the plant and the ground. Foliage in contact with the cover is often injured because of heat transfer from the foliage to the colder cover. Some examples of coverings are: cloth sheets, quilts or black plastic. It is necessary to remove plastic covers during a sunny day or provide ventilation of trapped solar radiation. A light bulb under a cover is a simple method of providing heat to ornamental plants in the landscape.

WHAT TO DO DURING A FREEZE

Ornamental plants can be protected during a freeze by sprinkling the plants with water. Sprinkling for cold protection helps keep leaf surface temperatures near 32°F (0°C) because sprinkling utilizes latent heat released when water changes from a liquid to a solid state. Sprinkling must begin as freezing temperatures are reached and continue until thawing is completed. Water must be evenly distributed and supplied in ample quantity to maintain a film of liquid water on the foliage surfaces. Irrigation for several days may water soak the soil resulting in damaged root systems and/or plant breakage due to ice build up. Consult Extension Circular 348, Sprinkler Irrigation for Cold Protection, for more technical information on this subject.

WHAT TO DO AFTER THE FREEZE

Water Needs

Plant water needs should be checked after a freeze. The foliage could be transpiring (losing water vapor) on a sunny day after a freeze while water in the soil or container medium is frozen. Apply water to thaw the soil and provide available water for the plant. Soils or media with high soluble salts should not be allowed to dry because salts would be concentrated into a small volume of water and can burn plant roots.

Pruning

Severe pruning should be delayed until new growth appears to ensure that live wood is not removed. Dead, unsightly leaves may be removed as soon as they turn brown after a freeze if a high level of maintenance is desired. Cold injury may appear as a lack of spring bud break on a portion or all of the plant, or as an overall weak appearance. Branch tips may be damaged while older wood is free of injury. Cold injured wood can be identified by examining the cambium layer (food conducting tissue) under the bark for black or brown coloration. Prune these branches behind the point of discoloration.

Florida homeowners enjoy a vast array of plant materials and often desire a tropical or semitropical appearance to their landscapes. Plants are often planted past their northern limit in Florida, although microclimates differ dramatically. Tropical and subtropical plants can be used effectively in the landscape, but they must be protected or replaced when necessary. A combination of tender and hardy plants should be planted in order to prevent total devastation of the landscape by extremely cold weather.

Footnotes

1. This document is ENH1, one of a series of the Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date June 1990. Reviewed October 2003. Visit the EDIS Web Site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

2. Dewayne L. Ingram, professor and former extension horticulturist; Thomas H. Yeager, associate professor and extension woody horticulturist, Environmental Horticulture Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Larry Arrington, Dean.

take from : http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG025

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